This is perhaps the largest body of primary sources in the Stolen Relations database. Although these advertisements are problematic in many ways (since they were written by claimed owners and reflect their biases), they often also contain information that we might otherwise not know (such as clothing, bodily markers, special skills, etc.). Additionally, they often raise interesting questions about the nature of servitude as well as racial categorizations.

These provide a sampling of a self-emancipated advertisements. Explore all of the self-emancipated ads in the database.

1. In 1705, a 26-year-old man living in servitude, whose name was once known, chose to emancipate himself from Samuel Niles. Read the document.
2. In 1711, two enslaved adults emancipated themselves from their respective legal owners: Rose from Elizabeth Brown and Toney from Nathaniel Norden. Read the document.
3. In 1711, Toby, Jenny, Phillis, Manway, and Boston emancipated themselves from their respective owners. They are each described by geographic origin. Read the document.
4. In 1747, Sam and Sampson, a 50-year-old Indigenous multi-racial man and a 12-year-old Indigenous multi-racial boy, emancipated themselves from Silas Parvin. Read the document.
5. In 1748, Robbin, a 28-year-old legal servant described as having the “Complexion of an Indian,” emancipated himself from Eleazer Tyng. Read the document.
6. In 1777, Abraham, Moll, and their two children emancipated themselves from Thomas Pell. Abraham is described as Indigenous and multi-racial and his children are described as Black. Read the document.
7. In 1804, Henry Bull, a Narragansett apprentice of about 18 years of age, emancipated himself from Hezekiah Babcock. Read the document.

Suggested Readings on Runaway Ads

Especially useful are archival records that include official documentation of Indigenous people into various forms of slavery and servitude. This could include outright sale into slavery or any other number of coercive situations, including indenture and being bound out to a white legal master or mistress for a set number of years.

These provide a sampling of sale and indenture records from the Stolen Relations database. Explore all the indentures in the database and all the sales in the database.

1. In 1645, John Gilling of the Summer Islands sold to Thomas Hilton two Indigenous women, Sarah and Marye. Read the document.
2. In 1680, James Barre made a list of the Indigenous people that he had sold in New York. Read the document.
3. In 1715, Hannah Tientiahchu was indentured to Martha Sheldon through a contract of parental indenture, by Bette Tientiahchu. Read the document.
4. In 1727, Spencer Phipps proposed to the Hassanamisco Nipmuc nation to take a girl, Betty or Elizabeth, as an apprentice. Read the document.
5. In 1729, Samuel Hasell wrote a newspaper advertisement for the sale of an Indigenous woman and her child, whose names were both once known. Read the document.
6. In 1761, Ephraim Dunham Frost became an apprentice to John Rogers Richmond through the process of parental indenture. Read the document.
7. In 1809, Coddington Billings created a contract for indenture due to the “suffering condition” of an Indigenous child whose name was once known. Read the document.

Another key source for the Stolen Relations project is probate records, such as estate inventories and wills. These are especially useful because, despite official censuses of individual colonies (which tend to omit enslaved Native Americans), these records are helpful indicators of Indigenous presence on plantations and in households.

These provide a sampling of probate records. Explore all of the probate records in the database.

1. In 1639, John Winthrop’s will left his enslaved Indigenous individuals to his son, Adam Winthrop. Read the document.
2. In 1676, Nicholas Easton’s will granted an enslaved Indigenous woman freedom upon his death and an enslaved Indigenous child freedom upon reaching the age of 25. Read the document.
3. In 1693, George Denison’s will left two enslaved Indigenous servants, John and Job, to his son, William Denison. Read the document.
4. In 1711, an inventory of the personal estate of William Biddle listed an Indigenous woman and two children. Read the document.
5. In 1721, an inventory of the personal estate of Samuel Lippincott listed two Indigenous people. Read the document.
6. In 1764, Edward Smith’s will left an Indigenous woman named Joan and two Indigenous girls, Jenny and Dinah, to his wife, Elizabeth Smith. Read the document.
7. In an undated document, John Holbrooke’s will granted an Indigenous man named Anthony, who labored as a servant, conditional freedom twelve years after his death. Read the document.

Some of the most inspiring sets of sources the Stolen Relations database draws upon are freedom suits, petitions, and court cases in which enslaved Indigenous people sue for their freedom. These petitions run the full range of American slavery history and often reveal important family connections.

These provide a sampling of freedom suits and petitions.

1. In 1634, Clement Briggs was fined and ordered to release an Indigenous person whose name was once known. Read the document.
2. In 1669, an Indigenous person was brought before the Virginia General Court and was granted freedom after five years of labor. Read the document.
3. In 1685, Peter Freeman, a Narragansett man, successfully petitioned the Massachusetts Court to return his enslaved daughter to him. Read the document.
4. In 1750, a Boston Council ruled to return an Indigenous girl captured by John Gorham to the French Governor Sergeant in Halifax. Read the document.
5. In 1807, Isabell petitioned for her freedom against Elizabeth Pegram on the grounds of Indigenous ancestry through her mother, Nanny. Though previously granted freedom, a District Court set an additional trial, finding her situation inconclusive. Read the document.
6. In 1820, Mary Ann, a Chickasaw woman, was found by the Court of New Orleans to have been entrapped into unfreedom by a person of the last name Songy. Read the document.
7. In 1828, Sophia, a woman of the Wackaway tribe of Berbice, petitioned for her manumission from illegal enslavement under Mrs. Adami and was granted freedom. Read the document.

Suggested Reading on Freedom Suits

Zoe Zimmerman, “Indigenous Freedom Suits and the Problem of the Law,” Stolen Relations Blog, February 27, 2023.

Another body of sources that allows the tracking of Indigenous enslavement is letters and correspondence. Mostly authored by white colonists, they given insight into the everyday practices and negotiations of enslavement.

These provide a sampling of the letters and correspondence from the database. Explore all the letters and correspondence in the database.

1. In 1637, Edward Winslow wrote to John Winthrop describing the taking of a Pequot woman, whose name was once known, as a prisoner. Read the document.
2. In 1637, Roger Williams wrote to John Winthrop to inform him that Reprive, a legal servant of Winthrop, had spent two nights in Providence. Read the document.
3. In 1677, George Denison wrote to the Connecticut General Council to inform them that a Captain Mason left him with three Indigenous individuals, for whom he had sought legal rights. Read the document.
4. In 1704, Barnardus Freerman wrote to the Commissioners for Indian Affairs at Albany. In this letter, he twice mentioned an unfree Indigenous person whose name was once known. Read the document.
5. In 1749, William Johnson wrote to a Governor Clinton to discuss a decision to return a group of Indigenous children to their families. He mentioned that a Mr. Vandrieson, who enslaved a Missisagey child, was unable to be found. Read the document.
6. In 1786, the Charleston, South Carolina, governor wrote a letter mentioning two Cherokee children who were detained and enslaved by Andrew Williamson. Read the document.
7. In an undated document, Joseph Prout wrote to his governor and council to inform them of the Indigenous person who was removed from Pemaquid and shipped aboard his vessel. Read the document.